Instructional Software is defined as "A general term for computer programs designed specifically to deliver instruction or assist with the delivery of instruction on a topic."(Roblyer, M.D., Doering, A. H., 2013. p.77). Software tools serve many purposes other than teaching; instructional software packages are developed for the sole purpose of supporting instruction and/or learning. As this style of teaching, or assisting with teaching, developed, it was called computer-assisted instruction and was typically used to tutor. It is quite difficult to categorize the multiple software available for today's classroom.
For example, a language learning system may have a number of straight drill activities, along with activities that fulfill problem-solving functions. So, do you categorize this as drill and practice or instructional? Gagne', Wager, and Rojas (1981) suggested a way to look at software that can help educators analyze a given product with respect to its instructional functions and design appropriate integration strategies that make use of these functions. Gagne' et al. said that drills, tutorials, and simulations each accomplish a different combination of the Events of Instruction.
The nine events are guidelines identified by Gagne' that can help teachers arrange optimal conditions for learning for various types of knowledge and skills. By determining which of the events a software package fulfills, educators can determine the teaching role it serves and where it might fit in the instructional practice. Each of these categories will be discussed below.
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Topic One: Drill and Practice
There are a few criteria to use when choosing a drill and practice piece of software: control over the presentation rate, the program must be able to discriminate between correct and incorrect answers, if a short answer is available, and feedback should be simple and display quickly.
Pros: Although one of the earliest of instructional software, the need has never waned. This software functions provide exercises in which students work example items and receive feedback on their correctness. This type of strategy would work well where repetition and rote memorization are desired. To help them master higher order skills more quickly and easily, students must have what Gagne' (1982) and Bloom (1986) call automaticity, or automatic recall of lower order prerequisite skills.
Cons: These programs vary considerably in the kind of feedback they provide in response to student input. Feedback usually ranges from "OK" to "No, try again" to animated displays or verbal explanations. Many of this type of software simply presents the next item if the student answers correctly, resulting in little feedback.
Classroom Usage: One of the most common uses of drill and practice are the ever reliable flash cards; usually for multiplication, but also for letters, visual representations, or compare/contrast. The trend toward high-stakes testing keeps this type of teaching in the game. Drill and practice programs may be used whenever teachers feel the need for on-paper exercises such as worksheets.
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Topic Two: Tutorial
Tutorial software is an entire instructional sequence on a topic, similar to a teacher's classroom instruction. It is usually expected to be self-contained instructional unit and students should be able to learn the topic without any help or materials. Tutorials are categorized as linear or branching. Linear tutorials are generally defined as "a simple linear tutorial that gives the same instructional sequence of explanation, practice, and feedback to all learners regardless of differences in their performance." (Alessi & Trollip, 2001), and a second category defined as "a more sophisticated, branching tutorial that directs learners along alternate paths depending on how they respond to questions and whether they show mastery of certain parts of the material." (Alessi & Trollip, 2001).
Pros: Since a tutorial includes drill and practice activities, helpful features include the same ones as for drills (immediate feedback, motivation, and time savings) plus the benefit of offering a self-contained, self-placed unit of instruction.
Cons: Some criticize tutorials because they deliver directed instruction rather than allowing students to generate their own knowledge through hands on projects, thus they feel tutorials are trivial uses of computer.
There is a lack of good products available. Tutorials problems become still more difficult because teachers frequently disagree about what should be taught for a given topic, how to teach it most effectively, and in what order to present the learning tasks.
Classroom Usage: There are multiple ways to use tutorials effectively in the classroom. The key is knowing the product. The following are several ways tutorials can assist in several classroom situations; students often need to repeat instruction on a topic after the initial exposure. This arena allows those who may be slower to understand techniques to spend additional time on them. There are alternative learning strategies, which in my opinion is most important, which allow advanced students the opportunity to glean as significant amount of background material prior to meeting with a teacher, and instruction when teachers are unavailable.
This could very well be the best usage of tutorials in a classroom, and is evident on both spectrum's of a true learning environment, where the teacher cannot leave the rest of the class to provide instruction that advanced students need, nor can they stay with rural area schools who cannot justify the cost of hiring a teacher for the few students who could benefit from physics, trigonometry, or other low demand subjects.
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Topic Three: Simulation
Not to state the obvious, as obvious to one may not be to another, but simulation is "a computerized model of a real or imagined system that is designed to teach how the system works. Unlike drill and practice or tutorial activities, learners using simulations usually must choose tasks to do and the order in which to do them. ( Roblyer, M.D., Doering, A. H., 2013. pg.90). Alessi and Trollip (2001) identify two main types of simulations: those that teach about something and those that teach how to do something. These are further divided into two sub-categories. These sub-categories are based on how users interact with them. There are physical simulations that allow users to manipulate things or processes represented on the screen. Second, are simulations that speed up or slow down processes that usually happen either so slowly or so quickly that students cannot see the events unfold. Biological simulations, such as those on genetics, are popular since they help students experiment with natural processes. Genetic simulations let students pair animals with given characteristics and see the resulting offspring.
Pros: Any type of research that compares simulations to real activities often qualify the benefits reported as saying that the impact of simulations depend of how and with whom they are used. There are many benefits related to using this type of software. Eskrootchi and Oskrochi (2010) report that, "Simulations do not work on their own; there needs to be some structuring of the students' interactions with the simulation to increase effectiveness" (p. 236). One of the benefits that I have never related to science and the study of any section of "bio" or life can now be covered with simulations. In the event of a number of practical and/or ethical reasons, the dissection of frogs, cats, etc. can be performed without violating a persons beliefs or feelings. To compress several of the other benefits; time can be compressed, processes can be slowed, students must be involved, money and other resources can be saved, repetition with variations can be eliminated, and complex observations of complex processes are possible.
Cons: With that many "pros", its hard to find "cons." But, the text mentions several. Though modern simulation software makes it possible to do simulated labs for topics in biology and chemistry, both the American Chemical Society, and the National Science of Teachers Association, have come out strongly against replacing hands-on, in-class labs with virtual ones, saying that simulations should be used only as supplements to regular labs. The College Board has also indicated that students may not get Advanced Placement course credit for any courses that substitute virtual labs for hands-on labs.
Then there is an issue of accuracy of models. There is also acknowledgment that simulations are in limited use in schools and feel this is because there is a shortage of products that are of high enough quality to be useful for school learning. Lastly, sometimes, simulations are used to teach concepts that could have just as easily be demonstrated on paper or with real objects.
Classroom Usage: When adequate lab materials are not available, simulations may be the best option. Some simulations actually allow users to perform experiments that they could not otherwise manage or that would be too dangerous for students. Simulations in place of or as supplements to role-playing: Many students either refuse to role play in front of a class or get too enthusiastic and disrupt the classroom. It seems to me that simulations take the embarrassment out of the equation, especially if the student has the choice to perform the experiment in life or in simulation. This seems the most realistic to my world; simulated or virtual field trips. Seeing an activity in its real setting can be a valuable experience, especially for young children. Sometimes, desired locations are not within reach of the school, and a simulated experience of all or part of the process is the next best thing. This is a wonderful and inexpensive alternative to introducing and/or repeating a new topic. Lastly, if simulations are used systematic ways that emulate in-class science labs, they can illustrate and provide practice in using scientific methods.
Considering how prevalent this application has been focused toward the field of science, I chose to provide a link that would assist in genetics:
Gene study
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Topic Four: Instructional Games
Technology based games/software programs are the industries way of introducing, into education, an attempt to deliver fun and effective learning. Simply defined, " instructional games add game-like rules and/or competition to learning activities."( Roblyer, M.D., Doering, A. H., 2013., p.95). Even though teachers often use this style of software in the same way they use practice and drill or simulation software, games are usually listed as a separate software activity because their instructional connotations to students is slightly different. When students know they will be playing a game, they expect fun and entertaining activity because of the challenge of competition and the potential for winning. Teachers frequently intersperse games with other activities to hold students' attention. This is a perfect example of the generation we are producing that require immediate results, or in this case, delayed results, but results none the less. Choosing software of this kind is relatively thought less; if your format and activities are attractive, you'll maintain your audience. Teachers should examine instructional games carefully for their value as both educational and motivational tools. Lastly, is physical dexterity. Unless the object of the game is to learn physical dexterity, the focus of the game should be learning content-area skills, rather than physical dexterity.
Pros: I don't think I would be including this twenty years ago, but today a classroom without elements of games and fun would be a dry, barren landscape for students to traverse. In an early review of the effectiveness of software "games" for educational purposes, it was found that games are more interesting than traditional instruction and is both a basis for using them as well as a consistent finding. That seems to be a pretty obvious pro for this area. It was also observed that retention over time favors the use of simulations/games. I think its safe to say that games are one of the more effective measures used in today's classroom.
Cons: First, and foremost, one should consider the learning-versus-fun aspect should be reviewed. Many schools forbid any use of games because they believe games convince students that they are escaping from learning. Critics also feel that winning the game becomes the students' primary focus and that the instructional purpose is lost in the pursuit of this goal. Some teachers have observed that students can become confused about which part of the activity is the game and which is the skill. Although students find many computer games exciting and stimulating, it is sometimes difficult to pinpoint their educational value. Lastly, are classroom barriers. These are put in place without the "gaming" aspect, but it seems that including the concept only increases this barrier. In a review of research on video games for instruction, six barriers to wide spread classroom implementation were found. These included negative teacher perspectives toward video games, as well as a lack of several characteristics such as art graphics, adequate hardware to run the games, short class periods, and to me, one of the most specific aspects is the lack of alignment toward state standards.
Classroom Usage: Today's classrooms are inundated with differing game software, as long as the system has the funding. Let's assume every classroom has unlimited funding for each student. These could be used to take advantage of the motivational qualities of games. In place of worksheets and exercises, as with drill and practice software, teachers could use games to helps student acquire automatic recall of prerequisite skills. Like simulations, many instructional games serve as a basis for or introduction to group work. In addition, some games can be played collaboratively over the Internet, as lastly, as a reward; This may be a valid role for instructional software, but teachers should avoid overuse, as the game can lose its motivational value and become an electronic babysitter. In addition, using games as rewards disregards the power of games to be teachable software, limiting them to behaviorist tool. Some schools bar games from classrooms for fear that they overemphasize the need for students to be entertained.
This area is inundated with websites.
the purple print....
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Topic Five: Problem Solving
Now we've come to a type of software that is designed specifically for solving problems. That seems to me to be one of the basic tools necessary in academic success. Problem solving is cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal when the solution is not obvious. This, to me, is the primary question that should be applied towards our educational system as a whole. Though most problem solving literature focuses on skills in solving mathematical problems, research on problem solving covers a wide variety of desired component behaviors. Although there are many opinions about the proper role of instructional software in fostering these abilities, there seem to be two main approaches. "Content-area problem-solving skills; some problem-solving software focuses on teaching content-area skills, primarily math and science. Others, like Alien Rescue developed by the University of Texas (http://www.edb.utexas.edu/alienrescue), are what might be called problem-solving "environments." These complex, multifaceted packages offer a variety of tools that allow students to create solutions to science related problems presented by a scenario. Secondly, is Content-free problem solving skills. Some educators feels that general problem-solving ability can be taught directly by specific instruction and practice in its component strategies and sub-skills."( Roblyer, M.D., Doering, A. H., 2013, p.99).
This type of software is broken down to the basics. It is difficult to separate pros and cons when applying problem-solving software. However, this is how I see and interpret the above:
Pros: The most prevalent "pro" regarding problem-solving software is that there are three different ways to see this product. The first is visualization in mathematics problem solving. One of the items that hinders learners from grasping upper level mathematics is the inability to visualize the problem, or how the problem is stated. All research stated in the text points to "raising the students above the noise level, allowing them to see the problem as a whole." ( Roblyer, M.D., Doering, A. H., 2013, p.100). Next is improved interest and motivation. It should be a given that when a student can visualize and stay interested in what a problem is asking, the higher the possibility of success becomes. Some educators also feel that students will become more active problem solvers if they experience success in their initial efforts. Lastly, is the prevention of inert knowledge. Making the knowledge and skills more meaningful to students because they illustrate how and where information and its application apply to actual problems assist in holding the attention of the problem solver. This, in my experience, is the most often discussed issue with higher level mathematics. It becomes the "why" in discovering the answer to the problem.
Cons: As we have evolved with regard to software designed to promote learning, the more complex and interactive the software has become. Trying to teach inference issues has been very difficult, especially when related to reading or other content areas. Software claims versus effectiveness is the second draw back regarding this application. Most all catalogs advertising teaching software claims to be the "silver bullet" to problem solving, yet most cannot live up to this claim. There is a lack of raw data that proves this. Mayes (1992) reports on studies that found "teaching sequenced planning to solve problems to high-ability learners could infer with their own effective processing (p.243). This is relative to one of the hardest concepts to overcome; high math anxiety and low visual preference. This would only apply if the software utilizes visual approaches. Lastly, is transfer. The ability to transfer material from one content area to another has little or no actual data to back up this claim.
Classroom Usage:
There are several integration strategies and guidelines on how to integrate these strategies in the classroom. One is to teach component skills in problem-solving strategies. This includes identifying and following a logical sequence, identifying relevant information to solve problems, not jumping to conclusions too quickly, and remembering relevant information. The second is to provide support in solving problems. This is to scaffold students as they practice solving complex problems. Lastly, is to encourage group problem solving. The tendancy, and most research, lends to the idea that collaboration is key when solving complex problems or issues. Since this is not an area in which I have any experience in teaching, from the reading, I understand that there are clearly defined skills that a teacher must teach. For example, Stokes (1999) recommends that students follow six steps to help the teacher integrate problem-solving software for directed teaching: Identify problem-solving skills or general capabilities, decide on an activity or a series of activities that will help teach the desired skills, examine software to locate materials that closely match the desired results, determining where the software fits into the teaching sequence, demonstrate the software, and build in transfer activities and make students aware of the skills they are using in the chosen software. ( Roblyer, M.D., Doering, A. H., 2013, p.102).
Click on the link below for more information regarding problem-solving software:
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Topic Six: Integrated Learning Systems
Integrated Learning Systems are, according to the readings thus far, the most powerful and most expensive of investments related to instructional software. These were first introduced in the early 1970's and were delivered using a computer network from a central computer. This, obviously, was prior to the wide access to the World Wide Internet as we know it today. My, how things have changed. Today, the I.L.S.-type capability is provided by offering the curriculum through the Internet rather than through a local network. Each I.L.S. offers a variety of instructional techniques in one place. This is the "mother" of all teaching or instructional software. This provides all of the above software in one central location. This software requires differing levels of training, from the basics to the highest of levels of performance.The core subjects identified are mathematics, critical thinking and problem solving, and applied technological effectiveness.
Pros: Where to start? Apparently, one way to ensure the appropriate use of I.L.S. is to have a careful, well-planned initial review process that involves both teachers and school administrators. Due to the increased emphasis in educational accountability has caused states to set curriculum standards to measure students' progress on them. I'm not sure where to start when it comes to Adequate Yearly Progress, or A.Y.P., but this software is what companies consider the Cadillac of educational software. Since the I.L.S. gives teachers and students a combination of all the software previously discussed, its benefits duplicate the benefits of those functions. In addition to this, I.L.S. networked materials are easy for teachers and students to access and can provide entire curricula from one location. Once and assignment has been given to use I.L.S. activities, its free time for the teachers to help other students who require their personal assistance. The teacher is available to roam from one area of the classroom to another.
Cons: There is one stand-out con relative to Integrated Learning Systems: cost. There were primary concerns of I.L.S. centers on their expense as compared to their impact on improving learning. Those in favor of the expense feel that the students who experience the most success with I.L.S. are those whose needs are typically most difficult to meet. I would have to agree with this. If teaching at a school where these systems are scheduled and time is limited, getting the help to those who need it most can be very difficult. If the I.L.S. were throughout the school, one can see how beneficial their use can be. With regard to the impact I.L.S. studies show modest gains for schools using I.L.S. These studies were performed from 1990-1997, when the systems were first becoming popular. Since then, using more controlled groups, the results show no significant differences in acheivement between classrooms using these systems and those using traditional materials and methods. Although, this is strictly my opinion, I find that these results are not out of the ordinary. Again, this may come from a background where instructional software was nearly non-existent, I could find little to no difference in the education I received using a chalkboard and chalk and the tens of thousands of dollars we spend on software today. I still remember my multiplication tables from flash cards, but that's another story.
Classroom Usage:
I would need much more training and technological support to properly utilize an Interactive Learning System, there are many applications I have heard about. There seems to be many applications to a "whiteboard" in today's classroom. Teachers have spoken about "test generators" to create and enter questions, and then they have the program prepare the test. The software produces the tests in a standard layout; eliminating the need for spacing and formatting of the page. That would save quite a bit of money over a school year. Test items are selected randomly from an item pool to crate different versions of the same test. This, I'm certain, would save money. A selection of questions based on criteria; programs usually allow teachers to specify criteria for generating a test. For example, items can be requested in a specific content area, matched to certain objectives, or set up in a certain format, such as short-answer items only. Lastly, are most programs automatically provide an answer key at the time the test is generated. This is, by far, one of the most effective measures of this form of software. I can only imagine.....
For more information about Integrated Learning Systems, simply click on the link below:
